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They don’t call it the Eternal City for nothing. It didn’t matter that that under the Tetrarchy’s fragmented structure that Rome was no longer the sole capital of the Empire. At the turn of early 4th century AD, the city still harbored its Senate, Praetorian Guard, and privileged tax status. But then those century-long traditions came under fire. In 306 AD, news arrived that the senior, Western Augustus Galerius wanted to disband the Praetorians. Much worse, the city’s denizens would now have to pay the
tributum capitis (per capita tax) just like every other ordinary imperial city. It was at this point the city’s ancient pride finally snapped. The mob then declared that the imperial purple be handed to Maxentius son of Maximian, not because he was the appointee of a distant imperial committee, but because he represented a return to the Roman heartland.
Maxentius (c. 283 – 312 AD) was far more than a mere usurper. As son of a former Tetrarchal Augustus, he certainly hailed from a legitimate bloodline. Moreover, he was approved by Rome’s Senate, not to mention he controlled both Italy and Africa. Even so, he was never recognized by his imperial contemporaries; instead, he twice had to defend against the official Tetrarchy. First, he defeated Western Augustus Severus II, whose troops defected to Maxentius in droves. Later, he faced Galerius himself, the most powerful man in the world, and forced him into a humiliating retreat from the city's impregnable walls. For six years, Maxentius turned Italy into a fortress that the Tetrarchy system simply could not crack.
Maxentius built up Rome on a scale rivaling Agrippa’s efforts at the Empire’s genesis. Monumental new structures were erected along the Sacra Via including the Temple of Romulus, dedicated to Maxentius’ son. Another impressive feat of new engineering was the Basilica Nova, its massive deeply coffered concrete vaults creating the largest interior space ever built in the Forum. Maxentius also established a sprawling new imperial villa complex on the Via Appia, replete with its own circus and family mausoleum. In additional to new construction, renovation of existing buildings was carried out such as restoration of the fire-damaged Temple of Venus and Roma. Through these efforts, Maxentius strove to reclaim the Eternal City's grandeur and its status as the true imperial center.
Maxentius' "Make Rome Great Again" campaign also included masterpieces of numismatic propaganda. One such example is this nummus, struck between 309 and 312 AD at the newly established Ostia mint. Ostia was the vital port of Rome, and by creating a mint there, Maxentius secured the logistical lifeline of the City. The obverse features Maxentius’ laureate profile facing right. In contrast with the contemporaneous coinage of the official Tetrarchy, the depiction here is relatively veristic. In accordance with Roman traditions, the obverse inscription reads IMP C MAXENTIVS P F AVG, indicating Rome’s devout and joyous Augustus also protected the realm as its imperator. The reverse features the Dioscuri, the twin protectors Castor and Pollux, who had famously saved the Republic at the legendary Battle of Lake Regillus. Such ancient imagery implied that Maxentius’ legitimacy intertwined with the roots of Rome herself. Completing the scene on this coin’s reverse is the legend AETERNITAS AVG N (The Eternity of Our Augustus), seemingly a direct challenge to the temporary, rotating nature of the Tetrarchy.
While the new Roman order endured for a while, Maxentius finally met his match in a fellow usurping Caesar, namely Constantine, who, unlike himself, was ultimately accepted into the imperial fold. Initially, there was an alliance, at least to the point Maxentius briefly struck coins acknowledging Constantius' heir as a fellow Augustus (an example can be found on the next Gallery Page of the Collection). As a further sign of initial cooperation, Maxentius sister, Fausta, wedded Constantine in 307 AD. Nonetheless, true trust between the rival western Roman Emperors was doomed from the onset. Tensions boiled a few years later when Constanine reportedly forced Maximian’s suicide, inciting Maxentius to vow vengeance.
War began in earnest in early spring 312 AD when Constantine invaded the Italian peninsula. After a successful siege of the border town of Segusio (modern day Susa), which Maxentius apparently left only lightly defended, Constantine advanced to Augusta Taurinorum (Turin). It was there that Maxentius had left an army comprised of heavy cavalry, whose primary mission was to protect against any chance that Tetrarchal Eastern Augustus Licinius might attempt to enter Italy from Dalmatia. Being challenged by Constantine’s forces from the West (over the Alps) was probably a surprise. In any case, Constantine proved victorious, and took control of the city without having to lay siege to it. In the aftermath some northern Italian cities defected, in particular Mediolanum (Milan), wherein the invading forces had the luxury of resting for several weeks. Other cities, notably Verona, remained loyal to Maxentius but were unable to thwart Constantine’s inexorable advance towards a final showdown.
Maxentius and Constantine faced off in late October. Up to that point, Maxentius chose to stay within his stronghold, baiting Constantine to bring the battle to the massive Aurelian Walls of Rome. But as the Constantinian juggernaut neared Rome’s outskirts, Maxentius made a curious decision. He led his forces across the Milvian Bridge, cut off its access back to the Eternal City, and next to it arranged a temporary wooden bridge. Maxentius had abandoned his defensive advantage to meet his foe with his back against the Tiber.
Ancient accounts of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge vary considerably. Some describe that prior to the conflict, Constantine saw a vision. That vision ensured his troops had the protection of a new God. To seal the new deal, Constantine reportedly decorated his soldiers’ shields with a sign, typically interpreted as the Chi-Rho, a combination of first two letters in the Greek word XPIΣΤΟΣ (Christos). Backed by their new monotheistic faith, Constantine’s army was unstoppable. On one point the ancient sources generally agree: an overwhelmed Maxentius retreated across the temporary wooden bridge, but it collapsed. Maxentius drowned in the Tiber along with his fleeing troops, and the remainder of his forces were subsequently killed or captured.
It should be noted that accounts the Battle of the Milvian Bridge were predominantly authored by highly biased ancient sources. Many aspects, such as Constantine’s vision, are likely exaggerations or perhaps fabrications. Also suspicious is Maxentius’ blatantly inept strategy. A more plausible explanation is that Maxentius had set a sophisticated tactical trap. The pagan historian Zosimus describes that the temporary wooden bridge was designed with iron fastenings, i.e. was collapsable. It is conceivable that Maxetnius’ plan was to lure his foe onto the bridge, pull the pins, and let the Tiber do the rest. But the gamble backfired. As Constantine’s superior cavalry broke enemy lines, the defense collapsed into a panicked retreat. The Maxentian troops crowded onto the temporary bridge before Constantine’s forces were even in place to be trapped. At that point, either the mechanism was triggered prematurely, or the wooden bridge simply gave way under the weight of the retreating army. Either way, Maxentius’ plan failed, and he succumbed to the Tiber.
Maxentius’ body was found, and his head was paraded within the city to confirm to all that he had finally met his end. This was important. In ancient times Augusti impersonators were not uncommon (for further discussion, see the “Nero Redevivus” coin elsewhere in this collection.) Afterwards, Constantine subjected his vanquished foe to
damnatio memoriae, ordering the destruction of all objects bearing Maxentius’ name or image; coins such as this one are thus rare and valuable sources of surviving information. By erasing Maxentius, Constantine was able to conveniently re-name and/or re-brand Rome’s new construction projects and take credit for completing them.
Given the biased ancient records and his
damnation memoriae, it is no wonder that history traditionally views Maxentius as a tyrannical usurper. However, a more balanced view emerges from recent scholarship. The latter includes studies of surviving coins and inscriptions, as well as newly discovered records. Instead of a failed usurper, Maxentius was a popular ruler who focused on rebuilding the heart of the Roman Empire. One new revelation is that Maxentius outlawed religious persecution in his territories at least five years before the famously touted Edict of Milan signed by Constantine and Licinius. (Indeed, Maxentius’ insistence on welcoming the Christian God in the
Pax Deorum is probably why he was never accepted by the official Tetrarchy.) Ironically, Maxentius’ key endeavors — from restoring Rome’s architectural grandeur to supporting Christianity — were usurped by his conqueror. The latter even carried the torch to restore the Empire’s focal point, albeit not Rome. There is one achievement, however, that will never be outdone: Maxentius was the last Emperor to rule from within the Eternal City itself.
Additional Reading: M Cecina and D Serra, “Diocletian, Maxentius and the legal status of Christianity in imperial constitutions on religious freedom (303-312 AD): a review according to the latest findings,”
Online Journal of Anthropology, 20(1):5-32, 2024.
Coin Details: ROMAN EMPIRE, Maxentius, struck 309-312 AD, Ostia, BI Nummus (23.81 mm, 5.91 g), NGC Grade: Ch AU, Strike: 5/5, Surface: 5/5, Obverse: Laureate head right, IMP C MAXENTIVS P F AVG, Reverse: Dioscuri standing facing each other, each holding the bridle of a horse, AET-ERNITAS A-VG N, MOSTT in exergue, References: RIC VI 35.
Image: Sony ɑ 7R Ⅴ camera / Sony FE 90mm f/2.8 Macro G OSS lens.