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Similar to their Greek predecessors, ancient Romans largely classified all people of other races and nationalities as “barbarians.” The obvious problem with such a broad delineation is that the Roman Empire constantly assimilated new lands and cultures; consequently, previously reviled barbarians continually evolved into new, tax-paying citizens of the Empire.
Throughout its history, the Roman Empire battled barbarians at nearly every border, ranging from minor incursions to full-scale wars. The list of specific barbarian tribes figuring into Roman history is prodigious: Alans, Berbers, Burgundians, Carpi, Frisii, Huns, Jutes, Lombards, Picts, Sarmatians, Scots, Suevi, Vandals — just to name a few. It might seem unfair to compile them together, since each had their own distinct origins, customs, and beliefs. Even so, that was exactly the viewpoint of many ancient Romans: barbarians were a monolith, viewed primarily as a threat unless they could be controlled, contained, or otherwise exploited for labor and military service.
Interactions between Romans and barbarians began long before the Empire. For example, the Germanic tribes (who would become highly relevant to the Empire’s ultimate downfall) originated in Scandinavia and moved southward over the first millennium BC. By the time of Julius Caesar, they had reached the Rhine; in fact, Caesar explicitly noted them as a serious future threat to Rome. A couple of centuries later, they had expanded to the Danube basin and occupied territories north of Italy to the east (mainly the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Visigoths) and west (mainly the Alamanni, Angles, Franks, Marcomanni, and Saxons). These clan-based tribes possessed rudimentary agricultural and husbandry skills, resulting in relatively slow population growth. They tended to emphasize martial prowess; however, their initial capacity for protracted warfare was limited given their technological state and lack of large-scale political or military organization.
Over time, the barbarians grew more sophisticated. Some groups started forming larger confederations, perhaps to more successfully raid Roman territories. In the early third century AD, southern Germanic tribes coalesced into the Alamanni, middle Rhine groups incorporated into the Franks, and North Germans converged as the Saxons. By the fourth century AD, there was a continuous barbarian belt all along Rome's frontier from the North Sea to the Euxinus Pontus (Black Sea).
Starting in the mid-fourth century AD, the barbarian barrage against the borders increased dramatically. This marked the beginning of what is referred to as the Migration Period, also known as the
Völkerwanderung, characterized by intensified human migration throughout Europe that lasted until the early Middle Ages. Early excursions involved the Germanic tribes, but they were soon forced westward, pressured by additional tribes arriving from the east — particularly the fearsome Huns. This relentless pressure fundamentally fractured the Roman economy. As borders became perilous and supply lines broke down, official Roman mints struggled to transport low-value bronze coinage to the outer provinces, particularly Gaul and Britannia.
This localized economic collapse gave rise to one of the most fascinating phenomena in ancient numismatics. Left without enough small change to conduct daily commerce, Roman citizens took matters into their own hands. Local merchants, soldiers, and civic leaders began striking their own unofficial, localized emergency money. Because these unofficial mints lacked state-of-the-art equipment and highly trained operators, the resulting coins often featured blundered legends, abstract portraiture, and crude artistry. Previously, it was assumed these crude coins were struck by invading tribes, earning them the moniker "barbarous issues." Modern numismatic scholarship reveals an ironic, more interesting pedigree: the vast majority of these coins were not struck by barbarians, but by Roman citizens driven to desperation because of the barbarians.
An example of such a barbarate coin is this imitative nummus, which perfectly encapsulates the ingenuity behind this localized emergency coinage. This particular piece attempts to copy an official issue from the Sirmium (modern-day Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) mint. The choice of a Sirmium prototype adds a remarkable layer of logistical wonder to the story; located deep in the Pannonian provinces of the Balkans, Sirmium was a major imperial residence and administrative center. If this coin was produced at the Empire's western fringes, then the prototype coin travelled a rather long distance. Alternatively, it is possible that ad-hoc minting capabilities were established in the Pannonian region.
What makes this barbarian-adjacent copy so fascinating is the local engraver's dedication to mimicking official administrative details. On this coin, a bareheaded, draped, and cuirassed emperor is depicted facing right. Tucked neatly behind the bust is the letter 'A' — a bureaucratic control mark (often denoting the first
officina or workshop of a mint). Much like a modern "First Release" designation, this mark held specific administrative weight for the official Roman state. The provincial celator meticulously copied this geometric shape, perhaps without even an actual understanding of its administrative function. They simply knew that this control mark belonged on "real" money and included it to give their localized imitative coin an air of official authority.
The reverse of the coin adds another profound historical irony to the piece. It depicts the emperor standing facing, head turned left, heroically holding a
labarum in each hand. The
labarum was a potent military standard often displaying the Chi-Rho or other divine symbols, utilized heavily during this era to symbolize the emperor's invincible, divinely sanctioned control over the Roman armies. The imagery was meant to project an aura of absolute, unshakeable Roman security. Yet, this copy was probably struck by desperate citizens precisely because that security was beginning to fail, and official supply lines were breaking down. The blundered reverse legend — reduced to a garbled ENIAN(?) — reflects a stark disconnect between the optimistic propaganda of the central Roman government and the pragmatic reality of provincial life at barbarian borders.
While Romanized societies in the outer provinces struck imitative coins like this one out of necessity, pre-Romanized barbarians across Europe brought about an even more profound transformation. As the
Völkerwanderung pushed further into imperial territory, these migrating populations increasingly integrated into Roman society. They frequently joined the Roman military, where they learned new tactics, acquired better materials, and came to admire Roman sensibilities. Many openly sought recognition not just as Roman soldiers, but as respected officers and officials. The Romanization of the barbarians was soon unstoppable — a dynamic that ultimately resulted in the Barbarianization of Rome and laid the very foundation of modern Europe.
Additional Reading: P. Heather,
Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe, 2009, Oxford University Press.
COIN DETAILS: ROMAN EMPIRE, BARBAROUS ISSUE, c. mid-late 4th Century AD, Barbarian 'Nummus', 21mm, 3.94 g, 11h,NGC Grade: Ch XF, Strike: 4/5, Surface: 3/5, Contemporary imitation of perhaps Sirmium RIC VIII 21, Obverse: Bareheaded, draped, and cuirassed bust right; A behind, Reverse: Emperor standing facing, head left, holding a labarum in each hand; ENIAN(?). Reference: Cf. DeWit 51.
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