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In 224 AD, Ardashir of the house of Sasan dethroned King Artabanus V, marking the transition from the Parthian Empire to Sasanian Empire (alternatively called the Sassanian, Sasanid, or Sassanid Empire). At its height, this realm stretched from the Himalayas to Egypt and the Marmara Sea. The Sasanians dominated western and central Asia for nearly half a millennium. Their only significant rival was the Roman Empire, with whom it shared some periods of peaceful coexistence, but more often than not, bitter warfare. Like the Romans, the Sasanians expended much of their economy and manpower on their military, although they tended to focus more on plunder than occupation. Like their Parthian predecessors, the Sasanians were strong and formidable warriors. Their fearsome, heavily armored cavalry, the Cataphracts, resembled an approaching sea of solid iron.
The Sasanians honored their Kings on coinage, notable for ostentation (but not variety). The production of this particular drachm occurred during the reign of Ardashir’s son, Shapur (sometimes spelled Shahpur) I. The obverse bust features a plethora of accoutrements: a four-turreted, jeweled tiara; a silk cap — with attached earflaps — decorated with pearls and gemstones; an orymbos (an ancient turban that signified the King); gemstone-laden hair (and beard) expertly tied up in ribbons; a necklace of jewels, and; a decorated, bordered cape worn about the neck and shoulders, held in front by (of course) a jeweled clasp. The inscription is equally ornate: Mazdah worshipper, the divine Shapur, King of Kings of Airan, or of celestial Aryan origins. The pomp continues on the coin’s reverse, wherein two muscular, spear-toting figures attend a massive fire altar: the one on the right is Shapur (note the towering orymbos).
The reverse inscription, Fire of Shapur, equates the ruler with the supreme god Ahuramazda, whose energy embodies the fire altar. The latter symbolizes the Persian religious philosophy founded by and named after Zoroaster (Zarathustra), dating back to early first millennia BC, around the time of the founding of the first Persian Empire. Zarathusthra described how events were based on cause and effect, and his teachings were strongly dualistic. His philosophy was based on “good reflection, good word, and good deed,” urging ethical demands on his fellow Persians. Zarathustra also taught that human wisdom was the fruit of good reflection, promoting science and education.
These concepts might seem inconsistent to the depictions of Shapur and his Sasanian Empire per mainstream (i.e., ancient Roman-centric) history: warmongering, ruthless, and greedy. These same descriptors arguably applied equally well to the Roman Empire at the time. Indeed, thoughtful examination of surviving evidence suggests the two ancient superpowers had much in common. In any case, their interactions, as to be expected, were very complex.
The early 240s AD confrontations between Shapur and Gordian III provide an example. According to commonly cited (mostly anti-Persian) records, Gordian had the upper hand, retaking many cities Shapur previously sacked, and preparing to siege the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. The imminent Roman victory fell through when Gordian died, probably at the hands of his own troops. Philip then assumed title of Augustus and decided to bribe Shapur into a truce, and return to Rome, securing his power: a puzzling outcome, considering the Romans’ supposed advantage. Surviving are Shapur’s personal notes of these events, even if history has not paid close attention to them. Therein, he straightforwardly described the defeat and death of Gordian in battle and acceptance of his successor Philip’s offer of half a million denarii to preserve his life. Also consistent with Shapur’s writings are rock carvings he commissioned to commemorate his victory. Curiously, Philip also claimed to be the victor, albeit once he was far away from the Sasanians.
A decade later (252-256 AD), Shapur once again advanced into Roman territory. Western histories of this period are brief, contradictory and biased, focusing mainly on the effect of plague ravaging the Romans (which the Sasanians seemingly used to their advantage). Accounts as recorded with a pro-Roman bias describe how Augustus Valerian attempted to parley, only to be captured, tortured, and flayed alive, his dried skin incorporated into a footstool for Shapur to mount his horse. Such events are consistent with Shapur’s complete and lucid personal account. It was noted that Rome reneged on territorial and economic promises, which prompted the Sasanians to re-plunder. Shapur also recorded his victory in battle and how the surviving Roman soldiers were captured and assimilated into his kingdom. Shapur's account is consistent with a variety of rock carvings that have also survived; notably, these artifacts depict the imprisoned Valerian as unfettered and in regalia, in contrast to the rumors of vile mistreatment.
All history is prone to some extent of bias, and the exact details of Shapur’s encounters with his Roman adversaries will probably never be known with certainty. Indisputably, Shapur bested the Romans numerous times over a three-decade reign that outlasted over a dozen Augusti, and his potent Sasanian Empire would not be defeated until the Muslim conquests of 7th century AD.
Additional Reading: S. Shahbazi, SHAPUR I: History, Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2002.
Coin Details: SASANIAN EMPIRE, Shahpur I, 240-272 AD, AR Drachm (4.74g, 25 mm), NGC Grade: VF, Obverse: Mazdayasna, Shahpur, King of Kings of Airan, of celestial Aryan origins, Reverse: Fire altar; flanked by two attendants wearing diadems (type 3b) and mural crowns. References: SNS type IIc/1a, style G; Göbl type I/1.
Image: Sony ɑ 7R Ⅴ camera / Sony FE 90mm f/2.8 Macro G OSS lens.