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Within the unforgiving and infertile Syrian Desert lies the lush oasis of Palmyra, City of the Palms. Human presence in the region predates recorded history. According to biblical accounts, Israel’s King Solomon founded the original city fort, Tadmor. At least as early as 2nd millennium BC, the oasis served as a rest stop for camel caravans travelling between the orient and the Mediterranean. By turn of the 2nd millennium BC, Palmyra profited from Rome’s growing appetite for products from Persia, India, and China. Palmyra grew into a grand metropolis of blended Roman, Hellenistic, and Persian architectural styles. In ancient Palmyra, one could purchase or trade exotic goods such as spices, silks, precious stones, and slaves. Despite a meager five inches annual rainfall, the surrounding lands supported a few dozen farming villages, due to a recently uncovered, extensive network of made-made reservoirs and channels. The locals grew many crops, such as olives, figs, pistachios, and barley. Ancient Palmyra was an eclectic place.
Increasingly, Palmyra’s prosperity drew Rome’s attention, and by Emperor Tiberius’ time it officially fell under the Empire’s domain. This marked initiation of prolonged and prodigious construction, including walled fortifications, aqueducts, theatres, and an immense, gilt-roofed temple dedicated to the Babylonian god Ba'al, all accessed by an almost mile-long colonnade lined by no fewer than seven hundred and fifty columns. It has been remarked that ancient Palmyra markedly influenced the evolution of neoclassical architecture and modern urbanization. Over the next several centuries, Palmyrene suzerainty alternated between semi-autonomy and direct Roman rule. Revenues from trading fees and taxes kept the region thriving, even when the Empire descended into the Crisis of the Third Century.
Hostilities between the Romans and Persians destabilized the region, particularly after Augustus Valerian fell into the grasp of Sasanian King Shapur I. Probably even before Valerian’s demise, Palmyrene leader Lucius Septimius Odaenathus — after a failed attempt to bribe the Sasanians — had already gone on the offensive (after all, a city overrun with Persian soldiers would be bad for business). Odaenathus fought the looting-crazed Sasanians for several years, scoring some surprisingly impressive victories. Meanwhile, Valerian’s son Gallienus, now sole official Augustus, was preoccupied with a massive barbarian incursion that threatened Rome. Thus, the time was ripe in in 260 AD for the brotherly pair of usurpers Quietus and Macrinus to claim the throne in the east. Their effort, fueled by their father’s machinations, did not last for very long. By 261 AD, Macrinus died attempting to challenge Gallienus in the west, and Quietus fell in the east, murdered by the savvy Odaenathus. Grateful Augustus Gallienus bestowed upon Odaenathus the prodigious title of Corrector Totius Orientis (basically, governor of the east, serving as the Augustus’ independent lieutenant).
Although Odaenathus never claimed the title of Emperor, he met a conforming end: murdered by a usurping relative, who in turn was murdered. Rule was now up to Odaenathus’ young son Vabalathus, and his mother, Zenobia. Gallienus (and his two successors) did not acknowledge Palmyra’s new management; no matter, Rome’s leadership remained rather preoccupied in the west, operating in a constant crisis mode. This allowed the remarkable Zenobia to continue her husband’s efforts, orchestrating her Palmyrene generals towards the eventual subjugation of the southeastern Mediterranean basin.
By the time of Augustus Aurelian, the Palmyrene Empire reached its zenith, controlling the previously Roman provinces of Syria, Arabia, and Egypt, in addition to a large swath of Asia Minor. In an effort to buy some time (while battling yet another upstart realm, the Gallic Empire), Aurelian acknowledged Zenobia and Vabalathus. At that time, coins were struck depicting both Vabalathus and Aurelian (such as the preceding one in this collection), suggesting Palmyra's subservience to Rome.
About a year later, coins tell a different story. For one thing, Aurelian is no longer depicted on Palmyrene coinage. More telling, Vabalathus and Zenobia are now named as Augustus and Augusta. Palmyra's rebellion against Rome was now out in the open.
This extremely rare double-denarius, which is one of perhaps 11 specimens as cited by a seminal reference, dates from the time of Palmyra's rebellion against Rome. The obverse portrays Vabalathus' radiate, draped, and cuirassed bust right, encircled by the epithet IM C VHABALATHVS AVG. Interestingly, Vabalathus only proclaims the existence of one Augustus — himself — and evidently does not acknowledge Gallienus as holding the same title. Also fascinating is this coin's reverse that features Hercules standing right, accompanied by the epithet IVЄNVS AVG, meaning the "Youth of the Emperor." Vabalathus was perhaps 14 years old at the time. Of particular note, Hercules holds a club in one hand, and an apple in the other. But this is no ordinary apple, it is an Apples of the Hesperides. This golden apple was kept in a garden at the far western edge of the world. The apples were closely guarded by the Hesperides, nymphs of the evening, and the serpent-dragon Ladon. Procurement of the apples was the object of Heracles' Eleventh Labour that he carried out for King Eurystheus. The apples are associated with immortality, and were supposed to the objective for the Hero’s ultimate test (wearily for Heracles, Eurystheus thought up an ever nastier, twelfth labor: to captures Cerberus).
It was Palmyra's ultimate test to stave off Aurelian and the resurging Roman Empire. By 272 AD, Aurelian had stabilized the Empire such that he could now afford to reclaim Palmyra, and he finally marched his armies east. He eventually captured Palmyra’s leaders, figuring they would serve as excellent war trophies in a highly anticipated Triumph upon his return. Vabalathus’ final fate is not known (he may have died on the journey back to Rome), although records indicate that Zenobia, after dutifully participating in the Triumph, spent the rest of her life living comfortably in Italy, the beneficiary of Aurelian’s famed leniency.
The following year, another uprising occurred in Palmyra. This time, Aurelian exercised no leniency, quashing the rebels and nearly razing the city to the ground. Palmyra inexorably declined, aggravated by earthquakes and conquests over the centuries. Today, Palmyra’s ruins are designated a World Cultural Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The site is considered In Danger, owing the lamentable looting and damage incurred during the Syrian civil war.
Coin Details: KINGDOM OF PALMYRA, Vabalathus, Usurper, AD 268-272, BI Double-Denarius (20mm, 3.14 g, 6h), Antioch mint, 4th officina, 2nd emission, March-May AD 272, NGC Grade: XF, Strike: 5.5, Surface: 3/5, Obverse: Radiate, draped, and cuirassed bust right, IM C VHABALATHVS AVG, Reverse: Hercules standing right, holding club set on ground and Apples of the Hesperides, IVЄNVS AVG, References: RIC V Online 3117 (11 examples cited); RIC V 4 var. (star in left field); Bland, Coinage 19e-m (dies 24/Ive i); BN 1265 (same dies).
Image: NGC Photo Vision Plus.