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Similar to their Greek predecessors, ancient Romans largely classified all people of other races and nationalities as “barbarians.” The obvious problem with such a broad delineation is that the Roman Empire constantly assimilated new lands and cultures; consequently, previously reviled barbarians continually evolved into new, tax-paying citizens of the Empire.
Throughout its history, the Roman Empire battled barbarians at nearly every border, ranging from minor incursions to full-scale wars. The list of specific barbarian tribes figuring into Roman history is prodigious: Alans, Berbers, Burgundians, Carpi, Frisii, Huns, Jutes, Lombards, Picts, Sarmatians, Scots, Suevi, Vandals — just to name a few. It might seem unfair to compile them together, since each had their own distinct origins, customs, and beliefs. Even so, that was exactly the viewpoint of many ancient Romans: barbarians were a monolith, viewed primarily as a threat unless they could be controlled, contained, or otherwise exploited for labor and military service.
Interactions between Romans and barbarians began long before the Empire. For example, the Germanic tribes (who would become highly relevant to the Empire’s ultimate downfall) originated in Scandinavia and moved southward over the first millennium BC. By the time of Julius Caesar, they had reached the Rhine; in fact, Caesar explicitly noted them as a serious future threat to Rome. A couple of centuries later, they had expanded to the Danube basin and occupied territories north of Italy to the east (mainly the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Visigoths) and west (mainly the Alamanni, Angles, Franks, Marcomanni, and Saxons). These clan-based tribes possessed rudimentary agricultural and husbandry skills, resulting in relatively slow population growth. They tended to emphasize martial prowess; however, their initial capacity for protracted warfare was limited given their technological state and lack of large-scale political or military organization.
Over time, the barbarians grew more sophisticated. Some groups started forming larger confederations, perhaps to more successfully raid Roman territories. In the early third century AD, southern Germanic tribes coalesced into the Alamanni, middle Rhine groups incorporated into the Franks, and North Germans converged as the Saxons. By the fourth century AD, there was a continuous barbarian belt all along Rome's frontier from the North Sea to the Euxinus Pontus (Black Sea).
Starting in the mid-fourth century AD, the barbarian barrage against the borders increased dramatically. This marked the beginning of what is referred to as the Migration Period, also known as the
Völkerwanderung, characterized by intensified human migration throughout Europe that lasted until the early Middle Ages. Early excursions involved the Germanic tribes, but they were soon forced westward, pressured by additional tribes arriving from the east — particularly the fearsome Huns. This relentless pressure fundamentally fractured the Roman economy. As borders became perilous and supply lines broke down, official Roman mints struggled to transport low-value bronze coinage to the outer provinces, particularly Gaul and Britannia.
This localized economic collapse gave rise to one of the most fascinating phenomena in ancient numismatics. Left without enough small change to conduct daily commerce, Roman citizens took matters into their own hands. Local merchants, soldiers, and civic leaders began striking their own unofficial, localized emergency money. Because these unofficial mints lacked state-of-the-art equipment and highly trained operators, the resulting coins often featured blundered legends, abstract portraiture, and crude artistry. Previously, it was assumed these crude coins were struck by invading tribes, earning them the moniker "barbarous issues." Modern numismatic scholarship reveals an ironic, more interesting pedigree: the vast majority of these coins were not struck by barbarians, but by Roman citizens driven to desperation because of the barbarians.
An example of such a barbarate coin is this light bronze nummus that was part of the remarkable Nether Compton hoard. Unearthed in England in 1989, this massive hoard of over 22,000 coins vividly illustrates the sheer scale of the localized emergency economy operating in the British provinces. This particular barbarian-adjacent issue attempts to copy an official coin of the Treveri (Trier) mint featuring a left-facing bust. The choice of a Treveri prototype is highly logical; located in modern-day Germany, Treveri was the principal northern administrative center of the Roman Empire, and was one of Constantine's early power bases, and the closest major official mint to Britannia. However, despite the geographical proximity, the dangerous English Channel still necessitated this localized forgery.
The reverse of the coin perfectly captures the psychological needs of the era. It imitates the famous GLORIA EXERCITVS ("Glory of the Army") motif, featuring two helmeted soldiers gripping spears and leaning on shields, with two military standards standing tall between them. During the Constantinian dynasty, this design was mass-produced to remind the populace of the unyielding strength and loyalty of the Roman military. The very well-executed details on this coin reflect the high skill level of its production; only close inspection reveals that this bronze is not an official Roman nummus.
While Romanized societies in places like Britannia struck imitative coins like this one out of necessity, pre-Romanized barbarians across Europe brought about an even more profound transformation. As the
Völkerwanderung pushed further into imperial territory, these migrating populations increasingly integrated into Roman society. They frequently joined the Roman military, where they learned new tactics, acquired better materials, and came to admire Roman sensibilities. Many openly sought recognition not just as Roman soldiers, but as respected officers and officials. The Romanization of the barbarians was soon unstoppable — a dynamic that ultimately resulted in the Barbarianization of Rome and laid the very foundation of modern Europe.
Additional Reading: P. Heather,
Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe, 2009, Oxford University Press.
Coin Details: ROMAN EMPIRE, BARBAROUS ISSUE, Constantine II, AD 307/310-337, Æ Follis (14.5mm, 0.88 g, 6h), Contemporary imitation, Imitating an official type of the Treveri (Trier) mint, circa AD 330-331, NGC Grade: AU, Strike: 4/5, Surface: 4/5, Obverse: Laureate and cuirassed bust left, CONST?STINOIII, Reverse: Two soldiers standing facing, heads turned toward one another, each holding spear and resting hand on shield set on ground between them; two signa between them, II X ?AGITV, TRP in exergue. References: Cf. RIC VII 518 (for reverse prototype), LRBC 112.
Image: NGC Photo Vision Plus.