Owner Comments:
Similar to their Greek predecessors, ancient Romans largely classified all people of other races and nationalities as “barbarians.” The obvious problem with such a broad delineation is that the Roman Empire constantly assimilated new lands and cultures; consequently, previously reviled barbarians continually evolved into new, tax-paying citizens of the Empire.
Throughout its history, the Roman Empire battled barbarians at nearly every border, ranging from minor incursions to full-scale wars. The list of specific barbarian tribes figuring into Roman history is prodigious: Alans, Berbers, Burgundians, Carpi, Frisii, Huns, Jutes, Lombards, Picts, Sarmatians, Scots, Suevi, Vandals — just to name a few. It might seem unfair to compile them together, since each had their own distinct origins, customs, and beliefs. Even so, that was exactly the viewpoint of many ancient Romans: barbarians were a monolith, viewed primarily as a threat unless they could be controlled, contained, or otherwise exploited for labor and military service.
Interactions between Romans and barbarians began long before the Empire. For example, the Germanic tribes (who would become highly relevant to the Empire’s ultimate downfall) originated in Scandinavia and moved southward over the first millennium BC. By the time of Julius Caesar, they had reached the Rhine; in fact, Caesar explicitly noted them as a serious future threat to Rome. A couple of centuries later, they had expanded to the Danube basin and occupied territories north of Italy to the east (mainly the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Visigoths) and west (mainly the Alamanni, Angles, Franks, Marcomanni, and Saxons). These clan-based tribes possessed rudimentary agricultural and husbandry skills, resulting in relatively slow population growth. They tended to emphasize martial prowess; however, their initial capacity for protracted warfare was limited given their technological state and lack of large-scale political or military organization.
Over time, the barbarians grew more sophisticated. Some groups started forming larger confederations, perhaps to more successfully raid Roman territories. In the early third century AD, southern Germanic tribes coalesced into the Alamanni, middle Rhine groups incorporated into the Franks, and North Germans converged as the Saxons. By the fourth century AD, there was a continuous barbarian belt all along Rome's frontier from the North Sea to the Euxinus Pontus (Black Sea).
Starting in the mid-fourth century AD, the barbarian barrage against the borders increased dramatically. This marked the beginning of what is referred to as the Migration Period, also known as the
Völkerwanderung, characterized by intensified human migration throughout Europe that lasted until the early Middle Ages. Early excursions involved the Germanic tribes, but they were soon forced westward, pressured by additional tribes arriving from the east — particularly the fearsome Huns. This relentless pressure fundamentally fractured the Roman economy. As borders became perilous and supply lines broke down, official Roman mints struggled to transport low-value bronze coinage to the outer provinces, particularly Gaul and Britannia.
This localized economic collapse gave rise to one of the most fascinating phenomena in ancient numismatics. Left without enough small change to conduct daily commerce, Roman citizens took matters into their own hands. Local merchants, soldiers, and civic leaders began striking their own unofficial, localized "emergency money." Because these unofficial mints lacked state-of-the-art equipment and the most highly trained celators of the state, the resulting coins often featured blundered legends, abstract portraiture, and crude artistry. In the 19th century, early numismatists incorrectly assumed these crude coins were struck by invading tribes, dubbing them "barbarous issues." Today, modern scholars recognize the profound historical irony—but not complete inaccuracy—of that moniker: the vast majority of these coins were not struck by barbarians, but by Roman citizens driven to desperation because of the barbarians.
An example of a much cruder barbarate coin is this imitative nummus featuring Constantine, which perfectly encapsulates the deeper, more rudimentary extremes of this localized emergency coinage. This particular piece attempts to copy an official issue — likely from the Treveri (modern-day Trier, Germany) or Lugdunum (modern-day Lyon, France) mint. While official state-sanctioned coins were masterclasses in pristine imperial propaganda, this unofficial strike features a highly abstract execution. On this coin, Constantine wears a crested helmet and cuirass, but the portrait lacks the refined proportions of official celators, suggesting a lower level of artistry and/or operational expertise. Furthermore, the completely blundered obverse legend reveals that the local engraver was probably illiterate. They were carefully copying the geometric shapes of the Roman letters they saw on an imported coin perhaps without an actual understanding of the Latin words they formed.
The reverse of the coin adds another profound historical irony to the piece. It imitates the famous "Two Victories" motif, a design heavily utilized during the Constantinian era to commemorate imperial vows and celebrate unshakeable Roman military triumphs. Complete with two winged deities holding an inscribed shield over an altar, the imagery was meant to project an aura of absolute Roman dominance. Yet, this barbarian-adjacent copy was probably struck by desperate citizens precisely because that dominance was beginning to fail, and official supply lines were breaking down. The stick-like rendering of the Victories, the uncertain inscription on the shield, and the garbled attempt at a mintmark reflect a stark disconnect between the optimistic propaganda of the central Roman government and the pragmatic reality of provincial life at barbarian borders.
While Romanized societies in the outer provinces struck imitative coins like this one out of necessity, pre-Romanized barbarians across Europe brought about an even more profound transformation. As the
Völkerwanderung pushed further into imperial territory, these migrating populations increasingly integrated into Roman society. They frequently joined the Roman military, where they learned new tactics, acquired better materials, and came to admire Roman sensibilities. Many openly sought recognition not just as Roman soldiers, but as respected officers and officials. The Romanization of the barbarians was soon unstoppable — a dynamic that ultimately resulted in the Barbarianization of Rome and laid the very foundation of modern Europe.
Additional Reading: P. Heather,
Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe, 2009, Oxford University Press.
Coin Details: ROMAN EMPIRE, BARBAROUS ISSUE, c. mid-late 4th Century AD, Barbarian 'Nummus' (18mm, 3.6 g) Constantine, Contemporary imitation perhaps RIC VII 65 struck at Treveri (Trier) mint, NGC Grade: Ch VF, Strike: 5/5, Surface: 3/5, Obverse: Right bust with crested helmet, cuirass, blundered legend, Reverse: Two Victories standing facing each other, holding a shield with uncertain inscription over an altar, blundered legend and mint mark, Reference: (for official issue) Lugdunum RIC VII 65 (?), ex. Malloy auction LXIV (2002) lot 668.
Image: Sony ɑ 7R Ⅴ camera / Sony FE 90mm f/2.8 Macro G OSS lens.