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Similar to their Greek predecessors, ancient Romans largely classified all people of other races and nationalities as “barbarians.” The obvious problem with such a broad delineation is that the Roman Empire constantly assimilated new lands and cultures; consequently, previously reviled barbarians continually evolved into new, tax-paying citizens of the Empire.
Throughout its history, the Roman Empire battled barbarians at nearly every border, ranging from minor incursions to full-scale wars. The list of specific barbarian tribes figuring into Roman history is prodigious: Alans, Berbers, Burgundians, Carpi, Frisii, Huns, Jutes, Lombards, Picts, Sarmatians, Scots, Suevi, Vandals — just to name a few. It might seem unfair to compile them together, since each had their own distinct origins, customs, and beliefs. Even so, that was exactly the viewpoint of many ancient Romans: barbarians were a monolith, viewed primarily as a threat unless they could be controlled, contained, or otherwise exploited for labor and military service.
Interactions between Romans and barbarians began long before the Empire. For example, the Germanic tribes (who would become highly relevant to the Empire’s ultimate downfall) originated in Scandinavia and moved southward over the first millennium BC. By the time of Julius Caesar, they had reached the Rhine; in fact, Caesar explicitly noted them as a serious future threat to Rome. A couple of centuries later, they had expanded to the Danube basin and occupied territories north of Italy to the east (mainly the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Visigoths) and west (mainly the Alamanni, Angles, Franks, Marcomanni, and Saxons). These clan-based tribes possessed rudimentary agricultural and husbandry skills, resulting in relatively slow population growth. They tended to emphasize martial prowess; however, their initial capacity for protracted warfare was limited given their technological state and lack of large-scale political or military organization.
Over time, the barbarians grew more sophisticated. Some groups started forming larger confederations, perhaps to more successfully raid Roman territories. In the early third century AD, southern Germanic tribes coalesced into the Alamanni, middle Rhine groups incorporated into the Franks, and North Germans converged as the Saxons. By the fourth century AD, there was a continuous barbarian belt all along Rome's frontier from the North Sea to the Euxinus Pontus (Black Sea).
Starting in the mid-fourth century AD, the barbarian barrage against the borders increased dramatically. This marked the beginning of what is referred to as the Migration Period, also known as the
Völkerwanderung, characterized by intensified human migration throughout Europe that lasted until the early Middle Ages. Early excursions involved the Germanic tribes, but they were soon forced westward, pressured by additional tribes arriving from the east — particularly the fearsome Huns. This relentless pressure fundamentally fractured the Roman economy. As borders became perilous and supply lines broke down, official Roman mints struggled to transport low-value bronze coinage to the outer provinces, particularly Gaul and Britannia.
This localized economic collapse gave rise to one of the most fascinating phenomena in ancient numismatics. Left without enough small change to conduct daily commerce, Roman citizens took matters into their own hands. Local merchants, soldiers, and civic leaders began striking their own unofficial, localized emergency money. Because these unofficial mints lacked state-of-the-art equipment and highly trained operators, the resulting coins often featured blundered legends, abstract portraiture, and crude artistry. Previously, it was assumed these crude coins were struck by invading tribes, earning them the moniker "barbarous issues." Modern numismatic scholarship reveals an ironic, more interesting pedigree: the vast majority of these coins were not struck by barbarians, but by Roman citizens driven to desperation because of the barbarians.
An example of such a barbarate coin is this bronze, whose size and weight are equivalent to a nummus. At a glance, it looks very much like an official imperial VRBS ROMA city commemorative. Its actual pedigree, however, is far more eclectic and fascinating. For one thing, this coin was buried underground for a millennium and a half before its discovery on February 19, 1989, by a metal detectorist in Nether Compton, a small village in Dorset, South West England. The Nether Compton hoard contained an astonishing 22,670 coins, nearly all of which were common bronzes bearing 330s AD Constantinian designs. Prominent were issues such as the Constantinopolis and VRBS ROMA city commemorative coins, and GLORIA EXERCITVS commemorative types struck in the names of Constantine the Great and his sons. Because there were no "Two Victories" types present in the find, numismatists estimate the hoard was buried around AD 339.
It is likely that this coin was struck locally. If that hypothesis is correct, this barbarian-adjacent issue represents a profound historical irony. Sometime around 325 AD, Constantine the Great permanently closed the imperial mint in Londinium (modern-day London). Consequently, all official state-sanctioned coinage circulating in Britannia suddenly had to be shipped across the English Channel, primarily from Gallic mints like Lugdunum (modern-day Lyon). Because shipping low-value bronze coins was expensive and dangerous, Britannia was probably chronically starved of small change. Even though Constantine ordered the Londinium mint to close, the provincial economy kept going, and there was still a demand for circulating currency. It is also reasonable to expect that, regardless of the mint's closure, at least some of the minting equipment and expertise was retained. As for access to the necessary metals, besides the possibility of re-melting existing coinage, the Britannia provinces were particularly rich in tin and copper deposits, the two primary ingredients necessary to forge bronze coins. Given the circumstances, it is not hard to imagine Londinium's former mint workers, with the help of local metal casters and blacksmiths, improvising as necessary to emulate a bronze issue made famous by the exact same Augustus who had shut them down a decade earlier. It would likewise not be hard to imagine why the improvising celator might choose to emulate the mintmark of Lyon, given that official mint's relative proximity to Britannia's shore. Even if the unknown engraver of this coin was not a former employee of Constantine's closed mint, they certainly possessed remarkable skill based on the impressive artistry of this obverse helmeted and mantled bust of Roma and the reverse she-wolf with twins.
While Romanized societies in places like Britannia struck imitative coins like this one out of necessity, pre-Romanized barbarians across Europe brought about an even more profound transformation. As the
Völkerwanderung pushed further into imperial territory, these migrating populations increasingly integrated into Roman society. They frequently joined the Roman military, where they learned new tactics, acquired better materials, and came to admire Roman sensibilities. Many openly sought recognition not just as Roman soldiers, but as respected officers and officials. The Romanization of the barbarians was soon unstoppable — a dynamic that ultimately resulted in the Barbarianization of Rome and laid the very foundation of modern Europe.
Additional Reading: P. Heather,
Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe, 2009, Oxford University Press.
Coin Details: ROMAN EMPIRE, BARBAROUS ISSUE, Commemorative Series. AD 330-354. Æ Nummus (12.5mm, 1.08 g, 7h). Contemporary imitation. Imitating an official 1st officina issue of the Lugdunum (Lyon) mint, struck under Constantine circa AD 332. NGC Grade: AU, Strike: 4/5, Surface: 4/5, Obverse: Helmeted and mantled bust of Roma left, Reverse: She-wolf standing left, head right, suckling the twins (Romulus and Remus); two stars above; •PLG. Cf. RIC VII 247 (all references for official issue); cf. Lyon 232.
Image: NGC Photo Vision Plus.