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Gallienus (c. 215 – 268) son of Valerian became co-Emperor a month after his father’s ascension in 253 AD. Father and son divided Rome’s defenses. Gallienus was responsible for the western provinces, while his father focused on the east. Even with this distribution of power, things did not come all too easy. It was the midst of the Crisis of the Third Century, and the Augusti contended with one calamity after another.
The crisis intensified in the late 250s AD when the Eternal City itself came under attack by Germanic tribes (the Alemanni and Juthungi). It was the first time since Hannibal's invasion half a millennium earlier that enemies had traversed the Alps of northern Italy to penetrate southward onto the Italian peninsula. It took a Senate-improvised army to repel the attackers, who were finished off by Gallienus' forces as they retreated. Possibly in response to nervousness regarding the Senate's initiative, Gallienus later enacted a new policy to exclude Senators from military commands.
Around 260 AD, just as Rome thought things couldn't possibly get worse, shocking news arrived from the eastern front that Augustus Valerian was captured by the Sasanians and presumed slain. Ambitious generals across the Empire took advantage of the situation to try and seize power for themselves. Perhaps most troublesome was Ingenuus, governor of the volatile Illyrian provinces, under whom Gallienus had entrusted the custodianship of his teenaged son and Caesar, Valerian II. It may have been Gallienus' intent to use the young Caesar's imperial presence to help stabilize the situation in the troubled region. In any case, the tide turned for the worse when Valerian II died in Illyria by unknown causes. Nervous about taking the blame — whether he was guilty or not — Ingenuus took the chance to claim Rome's throne. Gallienus acted quickly to quell the rebellion with the aid of Aureolus, one of the generals he had been promoting through the ranks.
Gallienus also relied on help to deal with a vexing revolt in the east begun by Fulvius Macrianus, who previously served under (the now deceased) Emperor Valerian as a fiscal officer in charge of the imperial treasury. Macrianus managed adding to the usurper list his two sons Quietus and Macrianus Minor. The Macriani marched the remnants of the eastern army back towards Rome, but along the way they were met by Aureolus and defeated in battle. Quietus was later murdered by another one of Gallienus' allies, King Odaenathus of Palmyra.
Meanwhile back on the western front, general Postumus proclaimed himself Emperor after killing Gallienus’ son and (extremely short-lived) co-Emperor, Saloninus. In the mid 260s, Gallienus laid siege to Postumus in Gaul. Gallienus was wounded, forcing the battle-weary Augustus to abandon the campaign, and he never had the chance to return.
To make matters even worse, in the late 260s AD a large Gothic invasion rampaged across Thrace, Macedonia, and Moesia, sacking many prominent ancient cities, such as Athens. The legions were mustered once more, and managed to eradicate most of the enemy in what was possibly the bloodiest battle of 3rd century AD.
Even after Gallienus routed the Goths, he had no respite. He returned back to northern Italy to confront the latest usurper to turn against him. This time, it was Aureolus. Although Gallienus quickly contained the insurrection, he was unable to bring it to an end. Reportedly, one night during the confrontation Gallienus was lured out of his tent by a false alarm that his adversary was launching a counteroffensive. Unprotected, Gallienus was met and murdered by a mutinous band of his own staff officers. The traitors’ identities remain unknown, although it is widely speculated that Gallienus' successor, Claudius Gothicus, played a role.
The breadth of Gallienus' military exploits as discussed above required him to rethink and ultimately reconstitute the Roman army. Carrying out such an ambitious military overhaul required increased spending, which came at the expense of an increased tax burden for citizens across the Empire. Concurrently, Rome's currency debasement reached an all-time low. During Gallienus' reign, the Empire's mints produced a vast quantity of debased coins, particularly double-denarii like this one that were actuality copper coins with a very slight amount of silver (~2%) present as a thin coating washed onto the surface. Presumably, Gallienus recognized this problem and perhaps he intended to eventually restore Rome's coinage as he had rehabilitated the military. If so, he died before he had the chance. Such numismatic reforms would be the purview of Gallienus' successors, particularly Aurelian and Diocletian.
It least it can be maintained that Gallienus' numismatic output was as prodigious in its numbers as it was in its variety of refreshing and interesting designs. In addition to employing a wide variety of obverse bust portraiture, Gallienus' coins reflect an unprecedented variety of reverse types. Gallienus struck coins celebrating his various forces, including Rome's legions, the Praetorian Guard, and especially his newly formed elite cavalry unit. Gallienus also struck various coins series featuring other subjects from real and fanciful animals to gods and goddesses. To keep up with coinage demands, he doubled Rome’s mint workshops, and opened new mints in locations close to his troops, such as in Trier, Siscia, and Cyzicus. On his coinage, Gallienus also portrayed himself as a god, as evidenced on this double-denarius struck in Antioch sometime after that provincial mint re-opened in early to mid 260s AD. The obverse portrait is draped and cuirassed, with a particularly prominent radiate crown. On the verso, Virtus, donning helmet, armor, shield and spear, represents manly strengths such as valor, courage, and character. The epithet VIRTVS AVG is intended to associate Augustus Gallienus directly with Virtus. The analogy is appropriate, considering that, despite a constant state of crisis, he managed to hold power for 15 years and avoid the complete collapse of the Roman Empire.
Indeed, Gallienus should be considered one of Rome's most capable Emperors, despite contemporaneous critiques from his Senate, whose negative bias stemmed from bitterness over being excluded from military commands. Gallienus recognized that new problems demanded new solutions. His adaptive strategy for action or inaction allowed him to consolidate power over his central Empire. His military reforms, administrative policies, novel views of the nature of Emperorship, and even his creative use of new and expanded numismatic designs all had a profound influence on his successors.
The relative longevity of Gallienus' reign is remarkable considering that it was marked by unprecedented calamities. He arguably should be credited with not only saving the Roman Empire from complete collapse but also laying the foundation for its recovery.
Additional Reading: M Grant,
The Collapse and Recovery of the Roman Empire, 1999.
Coin Details: ROMAN EMPIRE, Gallienus, AD 253-268, Billon Double-Denarius (4.22 g), Antioch mint, struck 266-267 AD, NGC Grade: MS, Strike: 5/5, Surface: 5/5, Obverse: Radiate, draped and cuirassed bust right, from behind, GALLIENVS AVG, Reverse: Virtus standing left, helmeted and wearing military garb, resting right on shield set on ground, spear with point up in left, star in field, VIRTVS AVG, References: Göbl MIR 1617i; RIC V 668; SRCV III 10402; RSC IV 1237b cor; AHG 485.
Image: Sony ɑ 7R Ⅴ camera / Sony FE 90mm f/2.8 Macro G OSS lens.