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The Roman Empire’s nadir, dubbed the Crisis of the Third Century, comprised unending usurpations, economic collapse, and relentless barbarian incursions. At the core of this chaos stood a Roman army that was no longer fit for its purpose, fragmented by internal struggles and too slow to meet threats on multiple, distant fronts. Given the circumstances, Rome ought to have collapsed. Miraculously, it did not. Rome recovered, and even thrived, for another two centuries in the West, and in the East for far, far longer. The turnaround’s tipping point is frequently credited to Emperor Aurelian for reintegrating the fractured Empire militarily, and many sources associate the comeback’s culmination with the comprehensive administrative and economic reforms implemented by Emperor Diocletian. Yet, the often-overlooked foundation for this transformation was actually laid down by an earlier Roman Emperor—Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus (218? – 268 AD).
Gallienus reigned from 253 to 268 AD, arguably the most crisis-filled era in all Roman Empire history, and that’s saying something. Despite rampant chaos, the Roman Empire persevered, thanks to Gallienus’ arduous efforts to revamp Rome’s military machine. Notably, Gallienus created a new, large, and centrally located cavalry — the
Equites Promoti (the "Advanced Knights"). This elite mobile strike force was designed for rapid deployment, as opposed to the traditional, frontier-bound legions that were slow and ineffective in the face of a multi-front crisis. This new force filled its ranks from fierce barbarian tribes, particularly from the Illyrian provinces renowned for their rugged horsemanship. The resulting heavy cavalry units served as formidable shock troops, utilizing the long
contus (lance) and the
spatha (long sword) rather than the standard infantryman's
gladius (short sword). From its debut, the highly mobile
Equites Promoti proved successful in repelling invasions; Gallienus proved that a centralized, rapid-response army could effectively defend multiple borers.
Emperor Gallienus also implemented other far-reaching and important military reforms. In a particularly bold move, he banned senators from military command. Instead, high-ranking leadership positions in Rome’s military were recruited from within, drawing upon the most experienced, highest performing equestrian officers. Such a move ensured that the most capable candidates were paired with the most critical leadership positions. It also boosted the troops’ morale and self-motivation.
Gallienus also boosted the troops’ morale through the production and distribution of an extensive series of coins honoring Rome’s armed forces. These coins included hundreds of reverse types honoring specific legions and other military divisions across the Empire. The troops were not just well-compensated; even their very compensation served as positive feedback and a powerful, public gesture of imperial appreciation.
This antoninianus struck at the Mediolanum mint is a worthy example of Gallienus’ military coinage. The inscription on the reverse of this coin, COHH PRAET VI P VI F (
Cohortes Praetoriae, six times faithful, six times brave), specifically honors the Praetorian Guard. This unit, the elite personal bodyguard of the Emperor, holds a history that perfectly encapsulates the Roman army’s complex role. Originally established by Augustus, the Guard was meant to be the Empire's most disciplined force, yet their history is replete with episodes of treason, assassination, and king-making. They famously auctioned off the imperial throne in 193 AD, and repeatedly exercised lethal influence over imperial succession. By honoring them so extravagantly, Gallienus sought to neutralize this volatile force. The coin’s imagery—a radiate lion advancing right—combines the solar symbolism of the emperor with the fierce feline's traditional attributes of courage and ferocity, attempting to bind this crucial, but often destructive, power to imperial will.
Despite laying this essential groundwork for recovery, Gallienus was prevented from seeing his reforms through to their full conclusion. In 268 AD, while besieging the usurper Aureolus at Mediolanum, Gallienus was assassinated by a conspiracy that involved his own senior officers. Even so, the military machine he had rejuvenated delivered success for Rome’s Emperors in the future. Claudius II Gothicus (reigned 268–270 AD), an Illyrian officer who succeeded Gallineus, made prolific use of the
Equites Promoti to inflict a devastating defeat on the Goths at Naissus. Subsequently, Emperor Aurelian (270–275 AD) relied entirely on this reorganized, mobile force to successfully reunify the fractured empire, defeating the Palmyrene Empire in the East and the Gallic Empire in the West. Additional restructuring of Rome's military occurred under Diocletian (284–305 AD), who institutionalized the division of the army into the
limitanei (border troops) and the
comitatenses (mobile field army), formally cementing Gallienus’ initial distinction between static defense and mobile offense. Rome’s military structure further evolved by the reign of Constantine (306–337 AD), who established the
Magistri Militum (the “Master of Soldiers”) to lead the
comitatenses. Notably, the Praetorian Guard was abolished and a new elite imperial guard, the
Scholae Palatinae (the “Palatine School”), took its place.
Although it took five decades, Gallienus' successors carried his ingenious vision forward to complete the mission: the Roman army reconstituted. Having re-established its reputation as a world-leading military machine, the Late Roman Army stabilized the Empire for centuries to come. But perhaps the most remarkable feat, and Gallienus' greatest legacy, is, along the way, that Rome avoided collapse in the first place.
Additional Reading: M Grant, The Collapse and Recovery of the Roman Empire, 1999.
Coin Details: ROMAN EMPIRE, Gallienus (253-268 AD), BI Double-Denarius (2.66 g, 21 mm), Mediolanum, NGC Grade: XF, Strike: 3/5, Surface: 3/5, Obverse: Radiate and cuirassed bust right, GALLIENVS AVG, Reverse: Radiate lion advancing right, COHH PRAET VI P VI F, References: MIR 979n; RIC 370.
Image: Sony ɑ 7R Ⅴ camera / Sony FE 90mm f/2.8 Macro G OSS lens.