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Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (240? – 312? AD) was common-born in Dalmatia province, possibly even the son of a freedman. Despite these humble origins, Diocletian rose in prominence within the Roman military under Emperors Aurelian and Probus, reaching the status of a commander. By the time of Augustus Numerian, Diocletian was one of the Empire’s most important military strategists.
In 284 AD, as the eastern armies were returning to Rome, the Praetorian Prefect Aper announced that the Emperor Numerian had died inside his closed coach. The troops, suspecting treachery, met and voted Diocletian as their new Augustus. Perhaps trying to dispel any doubts regarding his modest roots, Diocletian immediately insisted on ritual and formality. He gathered the legions, donned the purple imperial vestments, and, raising his sword to the sun, swore he had nothing to do with Numerian’s death. He then conveniently declared Aper guilty and personally executed him on the spot.
Consolidating his rule, Diocletian then faced his rival Augustus, Numerian's brother Carinus. Diocletian’s troops were outnumbered and on the verge of defeat when fortune turned; Carinus was assassinated by one of his own officers. Diocletian was now the undisputed Augustus. Contrary to tradition, he did not travel to Rome for Senate confirmation — in fact, he would not step foot in the capital for two decades. This was a deliberate signal of his long-term goal: to shift governance to the frontiers and exclude the Senatorial class from imperial administration.
Diocletian, in his forties and childless, required an heir and immediate assistance in running the vast Empire. To this end, he elevated his trusted military colleague, Maximian, to Caesar in 285 AD and co-Augustus a year later. Another year later, Diocletian and Maximian elevated themselves even further, to the status of gods, or rather sons of gods. Naturally, the more senior Diocletian declared himself the progeny of Jupiter, the supreme deity of Rome’s pantheon, whereas Maximian paired off one of Jupiter’s many children, namely the hero Hercules. The choices seemed appropriate in the same way that Diocletian’s brains complemented Maximian’s brawn.
This theological branding was broadcast throughout the provinces on coins like this one, struck during the co-reign but before the massive monetary reforms and other changes that would transform the Empire. The radiate portrait on the obverse still bears the stylistic hallmarks of Crisis era coinage, e.g., is highly reminiscent of Aurelian. On the reverse, the letters XXI in exergue denote the standardized ratio of 20 parts copper to one part silver. In modern times, this denomination is referred to an aurelianianus in honor of the Emperor who first introduced it. Also on the reverse, the right hands of two stately figures converge on a globe, atop which perches Victory. According to the most cited interpretation, the figure on the left is Diocletian, wearing military attire including a
parazonium (a long triangular dagger), and the figure on the right is Jupiter, bearing an impressive-looking scepter. The god is bestowing power or otherwise congratulating his son Diocletian for a job well done ruling the resurging Empire. Completing the scene is the reverse epithet CONCORDIA MILITVM, indicating the concord between Diocletian and the troops, Jupiter, Maximian, and/or any combination thereof. In reciprocation, Maximian contemporaneously struck aurelianianii with very similar reverse designs advertising concord among mortal and divine worlds.
Beyond divine distinction, Diocletian, realizing that the Roman Empire was too vast for one Emperor to control, decided that divide the Empire. To this end, Diocletian held dominion over the East while Maximian ruled Italy and the West. This division of responsibility was urgent; despite the Empire’s resurgence, there were still plenty of unresolved crises across the realm.
One such crisis area for Diocletian was the Danubian frontier and the threat posed there by various Germic tribes, particular the Sarmatians. Under the new diarchy, Diocletian was able to subjugate the Sarmatians, as advertised on his coins struck at both the Eastern mints bestowing him the new title of
Germanicus maximus. Interestingly, we see from coins that Maximian took on the very same title (probably for his help in subjugating another Germanic tribe known as the Alemanni). Evidently, the title of
Germanicus maximus, like Augustus, was no longer subject to exclusivity. As senior Augustus, Diocletian had privilege, and he re-established dominance over Germany no fewer than thrice more, as documented on coinage with epithets ending in II, III, and IV.
Besides ancient coins, other artifacts provide interesting insights into the period when Diocletian and Maximian co-ruled the Roman Empire. On such source is a panegyric (an honorary speech) addressed to Maximian as part of Rome’s birthday celebration on April 21, 289 AD.
”…anyone would justly call you and your brother the founders of the Roman empire, since you are the closest things, its restorers, and although I grant that this is that city's birthday and concerns the origin of the Roman people, the first days of your reign are the origin of her salvation…for you rule the state with one mind, and the great physical distance between you does not prevent your governing as with right hands clasped, your imperial majesty is enhanced by your twin gods, you maintain the advantage of a single empire by your unanimity…”
A healthy dose of editorial bias aside, the anonymous orator paints a picture of Rome’s resurgence under Diocletian’s “rule of two.” But the diarchy was not sufficient to cure all the Empire’s woes. Rome’s full recovery required even more drastic imperial reforms. On this topic the co-Augusti meet in Milan to discuss the fate of the Empire.
Additional Reading: Panegyric of Maximian Augustus by an Anonymous Orator, trans. B. S. Rodgers, 2014.
Coin Details: ROMAN EMPIRE, Diocletian, 284-305 AD, BI Aurelianianus (3.99 g), Pre-reform coinage (284-293/4 AD), Struck in Cyzicus (or possibly Siscia?), NGC Grade: Ch AU, Strike: 5/5, Surface 5/5, Obverse: Radiate and draped bust right, IMP C C VAL DIOCLETIANVS AVG, Reverse: Diocletian(?) receiving Victory on globe from Jupiter (or (o, CONCORDIA MI_LITVM, B in field, XXI in exergue, Reference: Vagi 2656.
Image: Sony ɑ 7R Ⅴ camera / Sony FE 90mm f/2.8 Macro G OSS lens.