Owner Comments:
The history of the Roman Empire is not only a tale of its Emperors, but also its usurpers. For anyone exploring that history through coinage, the chaos during 3rd century AD certainly provides many options. The availability of those coins, however, is another matter. While coins struck for Rome’s official rulers are relative common, those attributed to usurpers are much scarcer. But even scarce coins are illuminating. They at least provide proof of ephemeral usurpers who otherwise might be lost to history. As a critical case study, consider this antique billion nummus struck by Lucius Domitius Domitianus, whose brief reign ended circa 297 AD.
The little that we know about Domitius Domitianus has primarily been deduced from his coinage. He claimed for himself the trappings and title of Augustus, for example on coins such as this one depicting his laureate bust encircled by the inscription IMP C L DOMITIVS DOMITIANVS AVG, the titulature of a full-fledged Emperor. Unfortunately, there isn’t much else on the obverse to provide any details about his insurgency, such as its duration. Looking to other ancient sources — which are sadly scant and confusing — it can at least be surmised that this coin was struck no earlier than 296 AD and no later than 298 AD.
More clues about Domitianus are revealed on this coin’s reverse. In exergue towards the bottom edge, the letters ALE are inscribed. These letters are the mintmark standing for Alexandria, the only mintmark that can be found on Domitianus’ coins. This single, vital detail confirms that the insurgency was limited to the province of Egypt, whose capital was Alexandria. Another point of interest on this coin’s reverse is inscribed within the right field, namely the Γ symbol, the third letter of the Greek alphabet, marking the Alexandria mint’s third
officina, or workshop. The only other workshops thus marked on Domitianus’ coins were those of the first and second
officinas, confirming that the usurper controlled three active production lines for his currency. Having multiple locations for coin production within Alexandria is not surprising since, at the time, even though it had fallen from its former glory, the city was a major cultural hub, economic center, and grain exporter across the Empire. Although Domitianus’ realm was relatively small, it was powerful and represented a major threat to Rome.
As such, it was top priority for the territory’s official Augustus, Diocletian, to end the usurpation, preferably by wiping out the very memory of its existence. The resulting scarcity of Domitianus’ coins in and of itself provides a final insight into the usurper’s demise and the imperial response.
Like any antique coin, the rarity of this one depends on three elements: (i) the quantity produced; (ii) the fraction of produced coins that survived the test of time, and; (iii) the fraction of surviving coins uncovered. Regarding production volume, we know that Domitianus controlled three mint workshops, but we don’t know the exact period of time; estimates range from 6 to 18 months. Based on other ancient sources, along with a number of non-validated but reasonable assumptions, it can be estimated that each
officina had a production capacity of 3600 coins per day, so in total Domitianus produced perhaps up to about 6,000,000 coins (For more discussion of these assumptions, see the Owner’s Comments for the coin issued for Manlia Scantilla on Page 8 of this Roman Empire collection.)
Even if Domitianus produced this large quantity, like all ancient coins the vast majority of those coins have been un-made, by succumbing to chemical degradation beyond recognition or by the standard practice of melting down and re-purposing through the ages. Approximations vary, with the higher end citing that perhaps 99% of ancient coins have been un-made. Under this scenario, there should still exist about 60,000 coins bearing Domitianus’ name, of which a portion is still undiscovered, for example in buried hoards.
The relative quantity of discovered versus undiscovered ancient coins is difficult to know. In chaotic periods, for instance Domitianus’ uprising, people were more likely to bury their savings for safekeeping, expecting to retrieve them when the danger passed. However, when the owner was killed, displaced, or otherwise died before retrieving the hoard, it became an archaeological deposit. Most likely, the sites chosen for hiding hoards were deep and highly secretive, far from well-trodden paths of marked locations; hoards are unlikely to be found accidentally by surface activity like small-scale digging. Most discovered hoards today are found by accident during large-scale earth-moving activities like construction work, or by targeted metal detecting, and the largest discovered hoards tend to be buried deeper and further away from modern settlement centers. Given these factors, the percentage of Domitianus’ surviving coins that are still undiscovered should be relatively large. A reasonable estimate is in the range of 90-95%. This leaves us with an estimated total of 3,000 to 6,000 coins that we should know of today that were struck in Domitianus’ name.
Curiously, this figure at least 10 times the estimated population of Domitianus’ known coins today — perhaps 300, according to numismatic references using publicly available catalogs and auction records. This discrepancy requires an accounting for the missing 90% of coins. A logical explanation is a highly effective post-revolt purge, a solution that relates back to the thesis that scarcity is a direct consequence of the coin’s history. Diocletian, needing to set a terrifying example, likely decreed that Domitianus’s coins had zero legal tender value, initiating a mandated recall. The imperial mint eagerly absorbed this invalidated currency — a massive source of recycled metal — as feedstock for new official imperial issues. The threat of stiff penalties, coupled with the necessity of exchanging worthless coinage for official tender, motivated the populace to comply. The effectiveness of this state-sponsored obliteration must have been impressive. Using an assumption of 90-95% effectiveness, the final expectation is that there should be around 300 known coins for Domitianus, in good agreement with the number of specimens that survive today.
The presumed recall of Domitianus’ coinage was also highly consistent with Diocletian’s Monetary Reform to re-establish a consistent, revised monetary standard across the Empire. A key aspect of that reform was the replacement of the increasingly inconsistent and confusing variety of small copper coins with a new large silver-coated copper nummus. It is profoundly ironic that Domitianus himself was adhering to the new standard, as evidenced by this nummus’ size (25 mm), mass (8.8 g) and design, particularly the reverse featuring Genius, the representation of the divine nature present in all people, places, and things. Based in this coin's telltale irregular surface, Domitianus even followed the practice established by Diocletian for silver coating his nummi (on this coin, the argentum layer has long since sloughed away due to chemical deterioration, compromising some of the copper metal underneath).
This new monetary standard including this nummus design began soon after Diocletian rolled out a new imperial structure, the Tetrarchy. All four official Emperors of the Tetrarchy struck nummi very similar to the one here struck by Domitianus. (Various such Tetrarchal nummi are included within this Gallery Page and next). One interesting distinction for this coin struck in Domitianus’ name can be found on the left field of the reverse: an eagle stands with its head turned upwards and right, its gaze directed towards Genius. The meaning here is uncertain. The eagle, or aquila, was the supreme military standard of the Roman legions, and it may have been the usurper’s intent to associate himself with the military and/or a reminder that he had the loyalty of Egypt’s legions. Alternatively, the eagle had long been a symbol of Jupiter, and by extension, the Emperor himself, perhaps signaling that the usurper’s rule was legitimate and divinely sanctioned. Yet another, fascinating possibility is that the avian addition symbolized sovereignty and echoed Alexandria’s proud past; the same motif was employed on coinage of Ptolemaic dynasts who ruled Egypt before the Romans. In any case, this coin’s reverse was otherwise highly imitative of the design of Tetrarchal nummi. Domitianus’ numismatic mimicry was clearly intentional, he presumably saw the wisdom of Diocletian’s reform; besides, it wasn’t a bad idea to advertise that he wanted harmony with the Tetrarchy and was willing to adhere to its rules.
Also noteworthy is the reverse inscription GENIO POPULI ROMANI, meaning “to the genius of the Roman people.” This was essentially a salute to the guardian angel of Romans everywhere. As typically depicted on Tetrarchal nummi, Genius on this coin is portrayed holding a flowing patera in one hand while the other grasps a cornucopia. Overall, the scene invokes a sense of harmony, good will, and prosperity for cities across Rome’s vast territories.
Yet, the final irony of this coin lies in its design, which was both highly pragmatic and utterly provocative. Domitianus’ adoption of the new nummus design was a fatal flattery that invoked imperial anxiety. After all, if a local pretender could so easily replicate the foundation of the new imperial economy and command loyalty, the entire Tetrarchy was vulnerable to fragmentation, thus confirming that this rebellion was not a regional skirmish but a fundamental challenge to the new world order. The resulting systematic purge and the coin's extreme rarity today provide the final, historical verdict: Domitius Domitianus did not merely challenge imperial power, he threatened the
system, and for that, he and his coinage had to be obliterated entirely.
Luckily for today’s antique coin enthusiasts, the effort was not entirely successful.
Coin Details: ROMAN PROVINCIAL, Egypt, Domitius Domitianus, Usurper, 297-298 AD, BI Nummus (25 mm, 8.81 g, 12 h), Alexandria mint, 3rd officina, NGC Grade: Ch XF, Strike: 5/5, Surface: 2/5, Obverse: Laureate head right, IMP C L DOMITIVS DOMITIANVS AVG, Reverse: Genius standing left, pouring liquid from patera and holding cornucopia, eagle with wings spread at foot left, Γ in right field, GENIO POPV-L-I ROMANI, ALE in exergue, References: Cohen 1; RIC 20; Sear 12980.
Image: NGC Photo Vision Plus.